Gender and Cartoons: "Batman: The Animated Series"

The logo and end credits image of the series

Batman: The Animated Series is a cartoon based around the adventures titular popular superhero. Originally aired between 1992 to 1995, the television show was nominated for and earned several awards, including four Emmy awards, and has subsequently appeared on multiple "greatest of all time" lists. While originally intended as a program for older children, the show's complex, mature tone garnered praise for its adult appeal. The series spawned the DC animated universe, led to a sequel/spin-off titled The New Adventures of Batman, and included a theatrical full length animated film. Although gender was not at the forefront of the series, Batman: TAS featured various themes that tied into masculinity and femininity, some of which can be seen as positive while some are more negative.

Positive themes involved with masculinity are often tied to Bruce Wayne/Batman and Dick Grayson/the first Robin. When he isn't in his Batman persona, Wayne acts as the CEO of Wayne Enterprises. While some incarnations of the character feature Wayne treating his public persona as a spoiled, narcissistic playboy in order to hide his alter-ego, the Batman: TAS version of Wayne is more nuanced. This version of Wayne is more assertive, out-going, and intelligent, often directly involving himself in his company's work. Wayne is portrayed as a more humanized character in general, but he is especially humanized in regard to his parents, both in his public and caped personas. Wayne is portrayed as wanting to learn more about his parents, and suffers from moments of self-doubt in which he questions whether or not his parents would approve of his actions, and whether or not he wants to live up to their supposed expectations in the first place. Even though he's a masculine superhero, this version of Wayne still has flaws, challenging the belief that men must temper their emotions as showcased by Danielle Soulliere's Wrestling with Masculinity essay. Furthermore, while the show is violent for a cartoon, there are multiple instances in which Wayne and Grayson have to use their intellect to overcome obstacles. Batman retains his detective skills in this iteration, tying intelligence to masculinity.

Negative themes tied to masculinity are often linked to villains. While Batman and Robin consistently use violence throughout the series, neither purposefully mean to kill the majority of the antagonists they encounter, regardless of the crimes they've committed. The villains the pair encounter, however, aren't above murdering civilians, police officers, and politicians who stand in their way. Although this still normalizes the use of violence as a means of getting what one wants, it also reinforces the idea that the use of violence isn't necessarily a good thing, and can lead to death. Aggression and vengeance are also tied to negative representations of masculinity through the show's villains. Many of the villains are originally motivated by desiring vengeance against people who have wronged them, including the Riddler, Clayface, Mr. Freeze, and Two-Face. Two-Face is especially relevant here as his aggression is ultimately the cause of his split-personality, as he can't keep his anger and aggressive tendencies in check. The antagonists are generally defeated in their quests for revenge, though those responsible for wronging the antagonists are often punished as well.

From left to right: Poison Ivy, Harley Quinn, and Catwoman

The shows messages regarding femininity are even more of a mixed bag. The majority of characters in shown in positions of power are male, establishing a mostly male hierarchy in the city of Gotham. There are few major female role models in the show as well. Barbara Gordon becomes Batgirl very late in Batman: TAS, though she has an expanded role in The New Adventure of Batman. Batgirl serves as the show's primary positive female role model despite that. The most important female characters throughout most of the show are antagonists, mainly Poison Ivy, Harley Quinn, and Catwoman. Whereas male antagonists have a variety of body types, the major female antagonists are all slim and sexualized to varying degrees, often portrayed as flirty while using their looks to seduce male characters. They also have "feminine" motivations: Poison Ivy and Catwoman are usually motivated by protecting nature (plants for Poison Ivy and animals for Catwoman) while Harley Quinn commits crimes out of love for the Joker. Despite her motivations, Harley Quinn's relationship with the Joker is portrayed as abusive, and is criticized by other characters in the show. Some episodes of the shows also emphasize their femininity, even if it's at odds with their characterization, such as one episode of The New Adventures of Batman in which Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn force Wayne to take them shopping. Femininity in the show is ultimately less nuanced than masculinity, despite a few positive elements.

 Mr. Freeze's origin story

It's also important to note that multiple villains are humanized by their backstories. As we briefly discussed today in class, cartoons and other forms of media intended for children have oversimplified worlds of good and evil, dehumanizing characters that serve as villains. Some of the villains featured in Batman: TAS are shown to be fundamentally human, though ultimately twisted. Harvey Dent is first introduced as Gotham's District Attorney, and is a recurring character in the show's early episodes. He's shown to be a friend of Wayne, and is portrayed as a seemingly normal person, interacting with others and going on dates. It is later revealed that Dent has physiological issues related to anger management, which spiral out of control after he's injured in an explosion. Even after becoming Two-Face, Dent still has some attachment to Wayne, showing his saner, more "human" side. Mr. Freeze's origin story is altered in this incarnation, making him seem more human compared to older versions of the character. In this version of the character, Victor Fries is mainly motivated by his wife, who is cryogenically frozen due to a terminal illness. After he is mutated in an incident involving his former boss, he takes on the Mr. Freeze persona to get revenge. This version of Freeze is generally portrayed as a tragic character. Other villains, such as the Riddler and Clayface, have similar backstories in which they're wronged and resort to crime to avenge themselves. While Batman: TAS attempted to humanize its main antagonists, The New Adventures of Batman drastically altered most of the cast in favor of a more "streamlined" art style similar to Superman: The Animated Series. This resulted in highly dehumanized villains. Scarecrow's redesign, for example, is often held up as one of the most radical departures, losing his former masked design in favor of a more inhuman appearance.

Gender, Art, and Advertising: "Fearless Girl"

Fearless Girl

On March 7, 2017, a statue of a girl was installed in Bowling Green in the Financial District of Manhattan. The statue, called Fearless Girl, was created by Kristen Visbal and installed by State Street Global Advisors as part of an advertising campaign engineered by McCann New York to coincide with International Women's Day.  According to State Street, the statue is intended to highlight the need for gender diversity in Wall Street and workplaces as a whole. The statue originally featured an accompanying plaque, which told observers to "know the power of women in leadership. SHE makes a difference."

Fearless Girl and Charging Bull

The statue itself, according to Visbal, is actually based on two girls, including a Latina girl, highlighting Visbal's stated efforts to create something that everyone can relate to. Visbal has also claimed that she made sure to keep the statue's features "soft." Visbal intended to portray the girl as brave, proud, and strong, not belligerent or defiant. The statue's pose is different to the objectifying, weak poses that we examined in class, as the statue is posed as a powerful figure standing up to Arturo Di Modica's Charging Bull.

Young girls and women of all ages have taken photographs of the statue and have posed with it since it was installed. As shown in the tweets featured in the article, some people on social media sites like Twitter have praised Fearless Girl as a feminist symbol. Some people view the statue as something that extends beyond something that stands up to the gender gap in Wall Street, viewing it as something that empowers women in society as a whole. The statue was so popular among both New York citizens and tourists that its stay on Bowling Green was extended to March 2018. The current Public Advocate of New York City, Letitia James, has called for the statue to become a permanent fixture, as have others.

Others, however, have been far more critical of the statue. As noted earlier, Fearless Girl was originally devised as part of a marketing campaign by McCann New York for State Street, which calls the intentions behind the statue into question. Jillian Steinhauer refers to the statue as an example of corporate feminism in an article for Brooklyn-based art organization Hyperallergic. Steinhauer points out that the Board of Directors of State Street Global Advisors features more men than it does women. Emily Peck, writing for Huffington Post, also points out that less than one-quarter of State Street’s executive vice-presidents are women, and that only 30% of the company's new hires in 2016 were female. Both Peck and Steinhauer suggest that Fearless Girl's message stands at odds with what the company is actually doing in regard to women in the workplace, and that State Street is attempting to make people feel good about Wall Street despite its shady past.

The plaque included with Fearless Girl is especially notable for this argument. "SHE" refers to the statue itself as well as State Street's Gender Diversity Index, an exchange traded fund which uses SHE as a ticker symbol. While the latter meaning is potentially lost on many of the statute's visitors, the statue was originally intended to be a subtle advertisement. The plaque was removed in early April and replaced with a different plaque which omits references to the company's fund.

Fearless Girl can be seen as an example of corporate feminism which attempts to co-opt the message behind feminism, similar to Dove's various postfeminist campaigns as noted by Dara Murray's "Branding "Real" Social Change in Dove's Campaign for Real Beauty." Unlike the situation with Dove, it should be noted that the statue itself, as a piece of art, can still potentially be viewed as a pseudo-positive symbol despite its origins, as demonstrated by the positive empowerment it's already provided for young girls. It's possible that public perception of the work of art has transcended its corporate marketing origins, though people should still be mindful of those origins.

Gender and Toys

Toys represent a form of media sometimes taken for granted by parents and adults outside of academia. Toys, as a medium, are often used to impart expectations, societal norms, and knowledge to children through play. Advertising plays a key role in marketing toys to both parents and children, and often relies on preconceived notions of gender when it comes to selling gendered toys.

McDonald's happy meal tie-ins for The Amazing Spider-Man 2

Toys designed for girls tend to focus on the color pink, and are less "active" compared to toys designed for boys in mind. One stark example of this is displayed in the McDonald's happy meal toys for The Amazing Spider-Man 2. The toys specifically for boys are mostly action-oriented, such as the spinning top, the car, and the action figures. The inclusion of a mask even allows boys to pretend to be Spider-Man. The toys for the girls' happy meals, on the other hand, are more passive and focused on fashion, a stereotypical "girlish" pastime. While boys can pretend to be Spider-Man through the partial mask, girls can merely show their admiration of Spider-Man through accessories, as noted by Chris Sims in the previously linked article. This distinction sets expectations for what young girls should be interested in, upholding current societal gender norms. The pink toys also stand out in contrast to the usual Spider-Man design, serving to only signify that these toys are for girls. This also places toys for girls as a nebulous category for "the other;" while the Spider-Man design that most people associate with the character is heavily featured in the boys category, the girls category is different and non-conforming to the set standard. Girls can be potentially alienated due to this.

The original ad for the Lionel Girls' Model Train set

Another genre of toys specifically aimed at girls comes in the form of existing products retrofitted for gendered play. This concept is similar to the Ms. Male Character phenomenon that we discussed earlier in the semester. As discussed by Gloria Steinem in our textbook's "Sex, Lies, and Advertising" article, Lionel created a train set designed specifically for young girls by applying various pastel colors to a pre-existing design. Advertisements for the set stressed gender parity while simultaneously focusing on the "girly" color designs. Ads also tended to show girls with their mothers, an inverse of the general father-son bonding theme present in the majority of Lionel ads. The ads and the set itself imply that girls can only enjoy specifically colored toys, and that the regular toy, which was otherwise largely gender-neutral, was something specifically for boys. The set was a disaster for the company, partially due to the lack of interest in the design compared to regular, gender-neutral designs which mirrored real-life trains. The set eventually became a highly sought after collector's item due to its original lack of popularity, something which was spun as a positive by Lionel.

Monopoly Pink Boutique Edition

Another example can be found in the Pink Boutique Edition of Monopoly. While the base game itself is essentially gender-neutral, Hasbro created an edition aimed at girls. Again, the board is plastered in pink, designed "just for girls." Properties for sale in this version of the game include boutiques and malls, linking femininity to consumerism and fashion. This sets a standard for younger girls to follow, reinforcing existing stereotypical gender norms. This edition of Monopoly stands out as an oddity compared to other, gender-neutral versions of the game, including a wide range of properties based on popular media for children like Pokémon, SpongeBob SquarePants, and Despicable Me.

An example of the Lego Friends product line

One final example is the Lego Friends line of sets. The Friends sets were intended to address the disparity between the amount of male and female Lego minifigures in the regular Lego sets while creating a product specifically for girls to enjoy. Despite being marketed at girls, the sets were considered to be "dumbed-down" versions of Lego sets with figures that looked "more like Polly Pocket than Lego." While the sets generally had less individual pieces at launch, the sets themselves were often focused on "girlish" pastimes, including fashion and shopping. The complaints about the character designs also highlights the fact that Lego could have instead created more "normal-looking" female minifigures in regular sets, which would have alleviated the original complaints about their products. As the previously linked article notes, Lego is potentially attempting to shape what girls want rather than giving them what they want, which could possibly have negative effects on their development.

Gender in August Wilson's "Fences"

The trailer for Fences

August Wilson's Fences, originally a play written in 1985, is a slice of life drama focusing on the Maxson family during the 1950s. Much of the narrative's focus is given to Troy Maxson, a garbage collector turned truck driver and the head of the house, played by Denzel Washington. Other important cast members include his wife Rose, played by Viola Davis, and his son Cory, played by Jovan Adepo. Other supporting cast members include Troy's son, Lyons, from a previous relationship, played by Russell Hornsby, and Troy's brother Gabriel, played by Mykelti Williamson, who suffers the effects of a head wound received in World War II. While the narrative features multiple themes, gender, especially in terms of responsibility and aggression, is one of the major themes of Fences.

Troy ties responsibility to masculinity early on in the film, repeatedly explaining that taking care of his family is his responsibility throughout the story. In one of the early scenes, he tries to tell Lyons to take care of himself by getting a well-paying job instead of hanging around bars to indulge in his passion, playing music. Troy also attempts to teach Cory a lesson in responsibility after he quits his job to play football for high school, forcing Cory to go back and get his job back. After Cory asks why his father has never liked him, Troy explains that it's his responsibility to take care of Cory because he's his son, and that liking him has nothing to do with that. Troy later discovers that Cory never got his job back and forces Cory to quit the football team, partially due to his belief that Cory will never succeed in professional football due to racism and partially due to jealousy.

Despite doing his best to provide for his family, Troy wrestles with self-doubt over his responsibilities. Troy feels guilt for using the $3,000 that Gabriel received from his injury to buy a house, and later feels guilt for accidentally institutionalizing Gabriel due to his inability to read. Troy also feels guilt for not being around for Lyons' childhood, and gives him money when Lyons comes to visit to make up for it. Feeling inadequate, Troy has an affair with a woman named Alberta, ultimately failing to live up to his standards of responsibility.

August Wilson also criticizes the aggression often linked with masculinity. Troy reveals to his friend, Bono, and Lyons that he was forced to leave his home and "become a man" after getting into a fight with his father, protecting a girl in the process. He would eventually go to jail for attempting to rob a man to support Lyons and his mother. Throughout the film, Troy attempts to steer Cory away from falling into the same aggressive pattern that he was caught in, giving his son three "strikes" over the course of the movie. Troy himself continues to act aggressive during the film, however, at one point grabbing Rose's arm to the point of hurting her. Cory, angered by his father's infidelity and his refusal to let Cory succeed in football, lashes out, culminating in Cory attempting to hit his father with a baseball bat. Cory is thrown out of the house, and is forced to join the Marines in order to live on his own. Cory's aggression is punished just as Troy's was, though Cory ends up making better decisions than his father did.

Troy and Rose Maxson

Rose, the only female character for the majority of the narrative, is established as being a stay-at-home mom whose duties lie in the home. Although Troy loves her dearly, he often refers to Rose as "woman" and orders her around the house. Rose is shown to handle the household's cooking throughout the film, and is shown handling stereotypical "female" tasks, such as hanging clothes up to dry. Rose also handles the family's money, despite Troy's status as the family's bread winner.

While Rose is portrayed as a typical 1950s housewife, she ironically tackles responsibility with more success than Troy. Viola Davis stated that the things Rose sacrifices, personally, during the film become a very powerful symbol of the role of women, particularly at that time. After Troy confesses to having an affair, Rose rejects Troy, ignoring him while still with him in the same house. Troy's mistress eventually dies in childbirth. Instead of abandoning Troy's newborn daughter, Rose decides to raise her as her own child while rejecting Troy, calling him "a womanless man." The daughter, Raynell, seems to live a good life during the film's epilogue, when Rose once again stresses that she will raise Raynell to have a better life than she had. Rose sacrifices much of her life to ensure that Raynell's life is better, meeting the standards of responsibility that Troy couldn't meet.

Padmé's Portrayal in the Star Wars Prequel Trilogy

Padmé in Episode I: The Phantom Menace

Padmé Amidala, played by Natalie Portman, is the main female character of the Star Wars prequel trilogy, acting as Leia Organa's analogue. First introduced in Episode I: The Phantom Menace, Padmé, on paper, shares character traits with Leia, as both are portrayed as courageous leaders who are able to take a stand when they need to. Padmé's overall character arc leaves quite a bit to be desired, however.

Padmé, like Leia, is introduced as a political leader in the first film. Originally disguising herself as a handmaiden, Padmé eventually reveals herself to be the queen of her home planet, Naboo. Although she needs to be rescued in the beginning of the plot, Padmé takes an active role in unfolding events in the rest of the film. She first accompanies Qui-Gon Jinn during their stay on Tatooine and later by retaking her palace by force. While much can be said about the lack of depth displayed in her characterization, Padmé isn't defined as being a complete damsel in distress.

This aspect of her character remains mostly consistent in Episode II: Attack of the Clones. Padmé, now a senator for her planet, remains politically active and continues to make important, though sometimes reckless, decisions, such as urging Anakin to save his mother despite Obi-Wan's orders to primarily protect Padmé. She later shows that she can still take care of herself in battle during the fight in the arena.

Padmé's midriff bearing outfit in Episode II

The fight in the arena also highlights one of the major shifts in tone between the first two films. Padmé's outfit is ripped apart while fighting one of the monsters, which coincidentally happens to reveal her midriff for the rest of the battle. The torn outfit is often used in promotional materials for her character, including toys associated with the series. The outfit, and the forced nature of how Padmé acquires it, ties into the discussion on the sexualization of midriffs in Rosalind Gill's "Supersexualize Me! Advertising and the "Midriffs."" Portman even positions the outfit as something empowering in one of the film's featurettes, further highlighting Gill's commentary on the internalized sexualization of midriff advertising. Padmé herself falls into the exclusionary category discussed by Gill, as she fits the "narrow standards of female beauty and sex appeal." The featurette also highlights George Lucas's decision to portray Padmé in more "sultry," revealing costumes throughout the entire film in order to signify Padmé's "feminine" side to the audience, which can be related to our earlier discussion on gender signifiers.

Padmé's role in politics and gender role as a psuedo-empowered female character is completely diminished in Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, where her role as senator, and a formerly strong female character, is more of an afterthought. The romantic subplot fully established in Episode II takes full precedence over Padmé's other roles. Padmé's relationship with Anakin results in her being punished for falling in love. Near the end of the film, Anakin chokes her, and while she survives for a short period of time, Padmé ultimately "loses the will to live," possibly due to having "a broken heart." Her death has been ridiculed for being especially corny, and for also being the final stage in Padmé's lackluster character development. Over the course of the trilogy, Padmé goes from being a somewhat strong female character and positive role model to a marginalized supporting cast member.

Axe and the Role of Gender in its Advertisements

Axe (known as Lynx in some countries) is a body care brand primarily aimed at men, though its parent company, Unilever, suggests otherwise. As we've discussed in class, Unilever also owns Dove, known for its Real Beauty campaigns. Originally founded in 1983, Unilever proudly proclaims that Axe has been helping guys get the girl since the brand launched, acknowledging that the brand is based on "disruptive advertising" and "attention grabbing ads."

Axe's ads have largely relied on tying sex appeal to masculinity, portraying individuals who use Axe as "real men" who easily attract women. One early 2000s ad features a cheerleader chasing a football player onto the field, tackling him and ripping off his clothes. The ad suggests that this is part of the "Axe Effect." In this ad, sex appeal is linked to smelling "good," while athleticism and other stereotypical masculine attributes taking on a more ancillary position. Women, on the other hand, are reduced to caring solely about scent, suggesting that women are ultimately driven more by lust than anything else. The also features one of the core components of Axe ads from the 2000s: sexual attacks as the result of using Axe. What would generally be considered rape is lauded as a positive when it happens to men by various Axe ads, reflecting and highlighting a dangerous norm of our society.

Other Axe ads feature similar tones while moving away from the older style of ads. The ad shown in the video above, entitled "Office Love," originally aired in 2012. The ad features hair and a female chest on legs, showing how the two characters are constantly prevented from interacting with each other until after work, at which point they become regular humans. The ad proclaims that "hair [is] what girls see first," and recommends using an Axe product to attract women. Masculinity is tied to both Axe products and good-looking hair in this ad, though it's important to note that the ad suggests that attractive hair is only possible due to Axe in the first place. The ad also implies that while women see and focus on hair first, men first see and focus on breasts, tying masculinity to lust. The implication for women, on the other hand, is inherently objectifying. Breasts are used as the sole gender identifier for an entity that would otherwise be featureless and genderless. The hair itself, on the other hand, is not linked with any real gender identifier until the end of the commercial, where it's revealed to be the hair of a man.

Axe launched another ad in 2013 to promote its Black Chill product line. The ad's narrator states that "the world is facing one of the biggest crises in the history of history: girls are getting hotter and hotter." Men are shown getting into various accidents due to lustfully staring at passing women. Samantha Escobar notes that ad shifts blame of men’s poor behavior onto women, linking the cultural ties between appearance and justification/victim-blaming to the ad. Escobar also notes that men are portrayed as being unable to control themselves without using a product. Escobar's observations suggest that the ad is tying "true" masculinity to lust, with consumerism being the only option to control said lust.

A more recent ad, which aired for the first time in 2016, offers a different view of masculinity. The "Find Your Magic" ad attempts to add diversity to what would typically be considered "masculine" by our society, featuring a paraplegic man and a man dancing in heels. Axe's senior director, Matthew McCarthy, stated that more than ever, guys are rejecting rigid male stereotypes. Carlo Cavallone echoed McCarthy's sentiments, saying that the intended purpose of the ad was to give guys a sense of confidence and liberate them from stereotypical bullshit about what it means to be a man. While the ad is more inclusive than the average Axe ad, there is still much to be desired. All of the men in the ad share the same lean body type, though some are more toned than others. Masculinity, therefore, is tied solely to this body type rather than multiple different body types. Women receive less focus than in most Axe ads, though they are still portrayed in sexually objectifying roles (reflected when the narrator says "who needs all that when you've got...the touch" while a woman moans in bed).

How the Video Game Rust Handles Gender

Rust's logo

Rust is a multiplayer-only survival game developed for Windows, Mac, and Linux operating systems. First released in late 2013, the game focuses on surviving against natural elements, such as animals, and other players. Originally, all player avatars were bald white men, though later updates introduced different skin tones. In 2015, the game's developer, Facepunch Studios, which included the creator of Garry's Mod, Garry Newman, decided to randomly assign an avatar's race based on a user's Steam ID. Newman explained that the decision was made in order to promote empathy, a decision which garnered both praise and backlash from the Rust community, and the gaming community as a whole. In the same year, the developers introduced female character models, assigning them exclusively to server admins at first. All of this would set the stage for a later decision based on the gender of a player's avatar.

Examples of character models from the game, with male characters on the right and female on the left

In 2016, the game's developers decided to tie an avatar's gender to a player's Steam ID, as they had done with skin color. Additionally, half of Rust's players were automatically assigned female character models. Newman stated that the decision was based on both reality and diversity. He contended that Rust was "not about identity," and that the main objective was to survive. Newman went on to say that "player customization had got a bit out of control in other games," although he also stressed that he was "happy to have the diversity" in avatars, along with the other developers and some of the player base.

Despite some negative feedback, sales for the game actually grew after the changes

Some members of the community didn't mind the change. Newman pointed out that gender and race made no difference to the actual gameplay, a message that some players agreed with. The majority of female players, according to Newman, were " more pragmatic" about the changes, as they had "already [been playing] Rust as men for the past two years." One of the recurring problems in the gaming community is related to the disparity between female playable characters and actual female players. One study found that a nearly identical share of men and women report ever playing video games despite this disparity, though the problem isn't as stark as it once was. This pragmatism is likely related to that disparity.

Other players, however, responded negatively. In his statement regarding the gender decision, Newman described several examples of negative feedback. One male player wanted to have the ability to choose their avatar's gender in order to have "a connection to the character like most other games [he played]," instead of  having "some political movement shoved down [his] throat." Another complained that this was the developers' method of forcing players to accept the studio's "feminist ideals." Although the decision was divisive, the controversy and the changes themselves lead to an increase in sales for the game unlike any Newman had seen outside of sales.

The introduction of female character models to the audience as a whole ultimately combats the "Smurfette Principle" that we discussed in class by making sure that there isn't a lack of female characters in the game. The basic models themselves have no gender signifiers outside of specific (and randomly sized) body parts, which helps to avoid stereotypical depictions of genders and gender roles. Furthermore, it echoes the possible policy ideas set forth by Elena Bertozzi in "You Play Like a Girl!," as the changes increased the number of female avatars in digital games. This could help normalize gender relations in online multiplayer games by deconstructing preconceived notions regarding female avatars, as explained by Bertozzi in her Everquest example.

There are potential downsides to the policy, however. Male players are randomly forced to experience the inability to choose to play as the gender they identify with, just as female players have had to do for decades with some games. An alternative would have been to allow both female and male players to choose which gender they wanted to play as while randomly generating an avatar. This would, however, go against the artistic vision of the game's designers. While the changes did reflect the reality of being unable to choose one's gender at birth, Newman discussed some complaints he received from transgender individuals. One transperson argued that "assigning a fixed sex was reminiscent of real-world transphobia." In response, Newman reiterated the argument that the game wasn't about identity, and the developers were "assigning gender randomly in game – not in real life." The validity of the complaint is downplayed in this instance, ignoring the very real opinions of a subset of players.

Gender and Valentine's Day Ads

    

An example of a vintage Valentine's Day ad

Valentine's Day has been tied to commercialism for centuries, and complaints about these ties are nothing new. Ads for the holiday tend to focus on promoting cultural norms related to consumerism, emphasizing that the best way you can spend your Valentine's Day is by getting your significant other a gift to make them appreciate you more--often using sexual innuendos to highlight the pros of buying specific goods.

A Valentine's Day ad from Natan, a jewelry company, with obvious sexual connotations

Ads like the one featured above rely on sexist messaging to sell products. The message in this particular ad tells male consumers that giving their loved ones expensive diamond rings will literally make them open up their legs. The use of common feminine posture and clothing reinforces this message. It not so subtly suggests that a woman's heart can be "bought," for the right price. Other ads can be a little more subtle with this theme, although such ads don't explicitly discourage the norm created by other ads.

Dairy Queen's Valentine's Day ad from 2016

Some ads, however, take a satirical approach to the holiday. In 2016, for example, Dairy Queen launched a satirical ad which ridiculed the ties between the holiday and commercialism. The ad itself starts out like a typical Valentine's Day ad, featuring a couple cuddled together near a fireplace. The man takes out a gift, giving it to his significant other, who opens it...revealing a red spoon. The ad is meant to promote a new red velvet cake from Dairy Queen. As Megan Gerber points out, the ad pokes fun at the stale, often sexist conventions of the commercialized Valentine’s Day. The ad is ridiculing the notion that buying someone a gift will make them swoon, confronting the cultural standards set by other ads. It should be emphasized that the ad is still actively trying to sell a product, however, sending a message that consumerism is still ultimately the best way to win someone over on Valentine's Day.

Valentine's Day ads also tend to focus on gender and relationship norms as well, generally featuring a man and a woman. Some ads in recent years have gone against this established norm, instead featuring LGBT+ couples in their Valentine's Day ads. Lush, a cosmetics company known for its "ethical" stances, launched an ad campaign on social media for the recent holiday featuring same-sex couples. The ads, according to a spokesperson for the company, were meant to show that love transcends gender. While the ads still promoted a product, they went against traditional social norms while simultaneously focusing on couples being together, minimizing the commercial aspect of the ads.

Leia and Gender Roles in the Original Star Wars Trilogy

Leia as she appears in Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back

With Carrie Fisher's passing late last year, many fans of the Star Wars series reminisced about her role as Princess Leia in the original Star Wars trilogy. Fisher was lauded for her portrayal of the character, who was originally a strong female character in a series which featured more men than women in major roles. Fisher paved the way for future strong female characters as well, standing out as a role model that went beyond the general mold. Leia as a character breaks away from some gender norms, but conforms to some as well.

A New Hope begins with Leia's capture, setting the stage for the often used "rescue the princess" trope. Despite this, Leia is established as a strong female character right off the bat, defying Darth Vader's orders in spite of his menacing presence. Leia resists multiple attempts to uncover the location of the Death Star plans, establishing her as a fighter that isn't a mere damsel in distress. This trait is highlighted multiple times throughout the trilogy, such as when Leia takes the lead during the rescue mission on the first Death Star. Even though she still needs help, she's still able to take care of herself, and others.

Leia quickly formulates an escape plan

Leia's role as a leader, as shown in the aforementioned scene, is referenced multiple times in the trilogy. While Luke joins other members of the Rebellion in an attack on the Death Star, Leia remains behind, acting as one of the commanders behind the scenes. Leia continues to be a major leader in the sequel, serving as one of the main Rebellion leaders on Hoth in the beginning of Episode V. This trend continues in Episode VI, in which she personally attempts to rescue Han by posing as a bounty hunter and later leads an assault on Imperial forces on Endor.

It's also important to note that Leia's character arc extends into a romantic subplot with Han. Mary Peterson points out that Leia was a princess who fell in love without losing her identity. Leia's character still remains defiant, continuing to act as a leader without sacrificing her newfound love. Conversely, her love for Han never overtakes her other traits.

The most controversial aspect of Leia's character is her appearance in Episode VI, commonly referred to as "Slave Leia," Leia is captured while attempting to free Han, and is forced to wear an incredibly revealing bikini outfit. As Tricia Barr points out, there is no doubt Carrie Fisher was put in an outfit intended to sexualize her. Fisher revealed that the outfit itself made her extremely uncomfortable while filming Episode VI, as did the film crew's reaction to the outfit; she outright stated the outfit was intended to make Leia "more female." While Leia continues to be her rebellious self while wearing the outfit, even strangling her captor to death at one point, the outfit still attempts to titillate the audience, especially in regard to merchandising.

Although Leia's strong personality breaks through traditional gender roles and subverts audience expectations, there are still some stereotypical elements to her portrayal. While the positive elements outweigh the negative aspects, the negative aspects shouldn't be ignored.

Gender in the News Media

      

                            From left to right: Jeff Bezos, Michael Bloomberg, and Patrick Soon-Shiong
                                               
In the middle of 2016, Forbes published a list of some of the richest billionaires who own US-based news media. Included on the list were Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon and owner of the Washington Post, Michael Bloomberg, the founder and CEO of Bloomberg L.P., Patrick Soon-Shiong, then the second largest shareholder in Tribune Publishing Company, and Rupert Murdoch, the executive co-chairman of 21st Century Fox and the chairman of News Corp. The people included in the list share one major feature: their gender. Most of the billionaires included on the list were also Caucasian, with a few exceptions like the aforementioned Soon-Shiong.

AAUW's earnings chart

The concentration of power based on gender should not come as a surprise, however, as it somewhat reflects overall societal trends. According to the American Association of University Women, in 2015, women working full time in the United States typically were paid just 80 percent of what men were paid. The AAUW states that women are expected to reach pay equity with men in 2059 if the rate in closing the gap between men and women follows the rate between 1960 and 2015. The organization also notes that if change continues at a slower rate seen since 2001, women will not reach pay equity with men until 2152. The pay gap is even worse for women of color. The distinct gap in pay, combined with past earning trends and the inheritance of old money, speaks volumes as to why men continue to exert hegemony over the news media.

Overall representation in terms of gender according to the WMC

The inequalities between gender representations in news media extend beyond higher leadership positions as well. The Women's Media Center's 2015 edition of their yearly study on the gender gap in news media (it should be noted that the data actually comes from 2014) states that, overall, men generated 62.1% of news while women generated 37.3%. This gap is a recurring theme in the study. For example, men represented 64.6% of supervisors in newspaper-based news media and 69.2% of all TV news directors. White men made up 55.59% of daily newspaper employees while white women made up 31.1%; minorities were even worse off in terms of representation. This results in men, especially white men, becoming the voice of the news media, decreasing the visibility of women and minorities in terms of the general public's perception of who makes the news. The patriarchal structure also puts news media outlets at risk of portraying androcentric viewpoints instead of concurrently relying on multiple diverse viewpoints.

Despite our society's slow progress towards gender equality, the news media is still plagued by inequality. Leadership positions in the news media are increasingly becoming concentrated in fewer and fewer, typically male, hands. As David Croteau et al. state in "The Economics of the Media Industry," this could lead to undue political and social influence. Their message can be taken a step further in light of the information covered in this post, by stating that the concentration and conglomeration of the news media in the hands of men lends undue political and social influence to men. This effect ranges from the top of the hierarchical chain to the bottom, covering positions ranging from CEOs to supervisors, reporters, and editors.